Ancient Rome through the events and milestones of its history

Ancient Rome, one of history's greatest empires, left behind a legacy of culture, politics, architecture, and social customs that continue to inspire and fascinate people today. Here are 33 intriguing facts that reveal more about the life and the time of the ancient Romans. You can discover the most emblematic places in Ancient Rome's history, where the facts presented in this article found their public expression and form, on this guided audio tour Colosseum.

The Roman Republic and Empire: Political and Social Life

• Birth of a Republic:
  Ancient Rome transitioned from monarchy to republic in 509 BCE, marking a significant shift in governance. The Roman Republic was founded after the last king, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown due to his tyrannical rule. The new system emphasized the election of leaders and power-sharing among different classes, including the Senate, elected consuls, and assemblies. This new political model influenced many modern democracies, establishing principles of checks and balances and citizen representation that continue to resonate today.

• The Consuls:
  Two consuls were elected each year to govern Rome, representing the highest authority in the Republic. These consuls shared power, ensuring no individual could accumulate too much control. While they could veto each other's decisions, their leadership was often required in times of crisis, such as during wars. The consuls' primary duties included commanding armies, overseeing the Senate, and making key decisions affecting Rome's foreign and domestic policies. The principle of a dual executive influence was one of the key elements of the Republic's checks and balances.

• Senate Power:
  The Senate was originally an advisory body composed of Rome’s aristocracy, but over time, it became the central institution in Roman politics. Senators held significant sway in crafting laws, advising the consuls, and handling foreign affairs. Even after the transition from Republic to Empire, the Senate still existed, though its power gradually diminished under imperial rule. Senators were influential figures who controlled resources, finances, and military decisions, helping to shape Rome's domestic and international policy.

• Paterfamilias Authority:
  In Roman society, the paterfamilias, or the father of the family, held absolute power over all household members, including his wife, children, and slaves. This authority extended to making important decisions such as marriages, property ownership, and the life or death of family members. The paterfamilias could even disown or sell his children or slaves. This patriarchal system was fundamental to Roman social structure, shaping the family dynamic and establishing clear hierarchies within the home.

• Client-Patron System:
  The Roman client-patron relationship was a key social institution in Roman society. Wealthy Romans, known as patrons, would offer financial or legal assistance to less fortunate individuals, who in turn provided loyalty and services to their benefactors. This reciprocal relationship helped to ensure social order, with patrons gaining influence and clients receiving protection. The system fostered a strong network of obligations that transcended the family and was integral to maintaining social ties and political alliances.

• Citizen Class Distinction:
  Roman society was deeply stratified, with distinct divisions between the upper classes (patricians) and the lower classes (plebeians). Patricians were the aristocratic families who held power in the Senate and controlled much of Rome's wealth, while plebeians were common citizens with limited political power. However, over time, plebeians gained more rights, such as the ability to hold public office, through social and political struggles. This evolving social dynamic highlighted Rome's complex class structure and the eventual expansion of rights to more citizens.

• Free Grain for Citizens:
  To prevent unrest among the population, Rome implemented a bread dole system, providing free or heavily subsidized grain to its citizens. The grain was essential for feeding the city's large population, especially during times of famine or economic downturn. This policy, known as the annona, helped maintain political stability by preventing starvation and riots, thus ensuring that the urban population remained loyal to the government. Over time, this system evolved into a broader welfare program, benefiting the poorest citizens of Rome.

Roman Innovations and Engineering

• Aqueducts:
  The Romans were pioneers in hydraulic engineering, building aqueducts to transport water from distant springs into the city. These aqueducts allowed for a reliable water supply to support both public baths and private homes, which was essential for maintaining public health and hygiene. Some of these aqueducts, such as the Aqua Appia and Aqua Virgo, were marvels of engineering, utilizing gravity to move water over long distances. The legacy of Roman aqueducts can still be seen in many modern cities that rely on similar systems for water distribution.

• Concrete Revolution:
  Roman concrete, known as opus caementicium, was a revolutionary building material that allowed for the construction of durable and large-scale structures. It was made from a mixture of volcanic ash, lime, and water, which set underwater, making it ideal for use in harbors and other marine structures. This innovation enabled the Romans to construct remarkable buildings such as the Pantheon, whose concrete dome is still the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world. Roman concrete was a critical factor in the lasting durability of many Roman structures.

• Road Network:
  Rome’s road system, one of the most advanced in the ancient world, spanned over 250,000 miles at its peak, with around 50,000 miles of paved roads. These roads were essential for the movement of the Roman legions, trade, and communication across the empire. Roman roads were carefully constructed with multiple layers to ensure durability, and many of these roads are still in use today. The saying "All roads lead to Rome" reflects the centrality of the city in the Roman Empire and the efficiency of the road network that connected it to every corner of the empire.

• The Twelve Tables:
  The Twelve Tables were Rome’s first written legal code, established in 450 BCE after a struggle between the plebeians and the patricians. These laws were publicly displayed in the Roman Forum, allowing all citizens to understand their rights and obligations. The Twelve Tables addressed a wide range of issues, from property rights to legal procedures, and served as the foundation for Roman law. They played a crucial role in the development of legal systems in the Western world, influencing modern concepts of justice and fairness.

• Arches and Vaults:
  Romans revolutionized architecture with the use of arches and vaults, which allowed for the construction of larger, more durable buildings. Arches distributed weight evenly, reducing the amount of material needed while maintaining structural integrity. This technique was crucial for building monumental structures such as the Colosseum and the aqueducts. The Romans also used vaults and domes to create vast interior spaces without the need for supporting columns, which was a significant advancement in architectural design.

• Public Baths:
  Roman public baths, or thermae, were one of the most important social institutions in the empire. These bath complexes were not only places for bathing but also centers for socializing, exercising, and conducting business. Bathhouses featured large pools of varying temperatures, steam rooms, and even libraries and gymnasiums. The Romans' emphasis on cleanliness and public hygiene was reflected in the extensive bathing culture, which spread across the empire and remained a significant part of Roman life for centuries.

Daily Life and Culture

• The Gladiator Games:
  Gladiatorial games were among the most popular forms of entertainment in ancient Rome, often held in the Colosseum. Gladiators, who were usually slaves, prisoners of war, or volunteers seeking fame and fortune, fought to the death in brutal contests. These games were not only a form of entertainment but also served as a tool of political propaganda, showcasing the power and generosity of the emperors. The games often included exotic animals, mock naval battles, and re-enactments of historical events.

• Chariot Racing:
  Chariot racing was another highly popular form of entertainment in ancient Rome, especially at the Circus Maximus, which could accommodate up to 250,000 spectators. Races were intense and dangerous, with teams of horses pulling chariots around a track at high speeds. The sport was fiercely competitive, with factions supporting different racing teams. Chariot races were held during festivals and public celebrations, and the excitement of the races often spilled over into politics, with factions gaining significant influence in Roman society.

• Public Latrines:
  Ancient Rome was known for its advanced approach to sanitation, with public latrines found throughout the city. These latrines were large, communal spaces with marble seats, often positioned next to public baths. The Romans also developed an extensive sewage system, the Cloaca Maxima, which helped to prevent the spread of disease by carrying waste away from the city. Public sanitation was considered an important aspect of Roman life, reflecting the empire's commitment to public health and cleanliness.

• Garum – The Fish Sauce:
  Garum was a popular condiment in ancient Rome, made from fermented fish guts and used to enhance the flavor of various dishes. It was a staple of Roman cuisine, and its production was a major industry in the empire. Garum was exported throughout the Mediterranean and was highly prized for its rich, salty taste. The sauce was used in everything from stews to salads, and its strong flavor profile made it an essential ingredient in Roman dining.

• Lavish Feasts:
  Wealthy Romans often indulged in lavish feasts, where exotic foods like flamingo tongues, peacocks, and roasted dormice were served. These banquets were not only about food but also about social status and displaying wealth. Hosts would often invite guests to compete in eating challenges, and the feasts could last for hours, with entertainment and music provided throughout. These extravagant meals were a reflection of the Roman aristocracy’s desire to demonstrate their power and influence.

• Famous Roman Dress – The Toga:
  The toga was the most iconic piece of clothing worn by Roman citizens, and it was reserved exclusively for free men. The toga was a large, semi-circular piece of cloth draped over the body, and its color and style indicated the wearer's social status. The toga was often worn during public events, such as political speeches and religious ceremonies. It was considered a symbol of Roman citizenship and was often associated with the dignity and seriousness of Roman society.

• Latin Language:
  Latin was the language of the Romans, and it became the foundation for many modern languages, including Italian, Spanish, French, and Portuguese. Latin was used in all official documents, legal proceedings, and literature, and it remained the dominant language in the Western world for centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire. Latin’s influence is still seen today in scientific terminology, law, and the Catholic Church, where it remains the official language.

Religious and Superstitious Practices

• Polytheistic Beliefs:
  Roman religion was polytheistic, with a vast pantheon of gods and goddesses who were believed to control various aspects of life. Many Roman deities were based on Greek gods, though their names and attributes were often different. For example, Jupiter was the Roman equivalent of Zeus, and Venus was similar to Aphrodite. Romans believed that by honoring the gods through rituals, sacrifices, and prayers, they could ensure prosperity and protection for themselves and the state.

• Emperor Worship:
  Beginning with Augustus, Roman emperors were often deified after their deaths, a practice that helped solidify their authority and reinforce the loyalty of the people. Emperors such as Julius Caesar and Augustus were worshiped as gods, and temples were built in their honor. The practice of emperor worship also helped the emperor maintain control over the vast Roman Empire, as subjects across the empire were expected to show reverence to the emperor as a divine figure.

• Household Gods:
  The Romans also revered household gods, known as Lares and Penates, who were believed to protect the home and family. Shrines dedicated to these deities were common in Roman homes, and daily rituals were performed to honor them. The Lares were often depicted as small statues, and offerings of food and drink were made to them in order to ensure their favor. This focus on household worship reflected the importance of family and domestic life in Roman society.

• Augury and Omens:
  The Romans placed great importance on omens and signs, believing that the gods communicated their will through natural occurrences. Augurs were priests who interpreted these signs, such as the flight patterns of birds or the behavior of animals, to determine whether a proposed action was auspicious. Romans would often delay important decisions, such as military campaigns or political actions, until the augurs had provided favorable signs. This reliance on divination played a crucial role in Roman decision-making.

• Saturnalia Festival:
  Saturnalia was one of the most popular festivals in ancient Rome, held in honor of the god Saturn. The festival took place in December and was marked by feasting, gift-giving, and role reversals. Slaves were given temporary freedom and allowed to participate in the festivities, while their masters often served them during the celebrations. The atmosphere of revelry and merrymaking during Saturnalia was in stark contrast to the usual social order, and it was a time when Romans let loose and celebrated the end of the year.

Military and Expansion

• Professional Soldiers:
  The Roman army was a professional force, consisting of well-trained soldiers who served long terms in exchange for pay, land, or a pension. Soldiers were trained in combat, discipline, and construction, enabling them to build roads, fortifications, and other military infrastructure. This professionalism allowed the Roman army to maintain its superiority over adversaries, as Roman legions were highly organized and effective in battle. The Roman military was a key factor in the empire's expansion and maintenance.

• Roman Legion Structure:
  The Roman legion was the fundamental unit of the Roman military, and it was composed of about 5,000 soldiers. The legion was divided into smaller units called centuries, each led by a centurion. The organization of the Roman legion was highly disciplined, with soldiers performing specific tasks and duties to maintain order. The centurions were crucial in ensuring discipline within the ranks and in leading their men into battle. The Roman military's organizational structure was one of the main reasons for its success in conquering vast territories.

• The Punic Wars:
  The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BCE to 146 BCE. The conflict was primarily over control of the western Mediterranean and was marked by notable figures like Hannibal, who famously crossed the Alps with elephants. The Punic Wars ultimately led to the destruction of Carthage and cemented Rome’s position as the dominant power in the Mediterranean. The wars also contributed to the Roman military's development, with Rome incorporating new tactics and innovations into its forces.

• Roman Armor and Weapons:
  Roman soldiers were equipped with advanced armor, including the lorica segmentata, a type of armor made of metal strips that provided superior protection. They also carried large rectangular shields (scutum) and short swords (gladius), which were designed for close combat. The gladius became one of the most recognizable symbols of Roman military prowess. Roman soldiers were highly trained in combat techniques, making them formidable opponents on the battlefield and ensuring the success of the Roman legions.

• Hadrian's Wall:
  Hadrian's Wall, built in northern Britain during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117–138 CE), marked the Roman Empire's northernmost boundary. The wall stretched across 73 miles from coast to coast and was designed to protect Roman Britain from raids by northern tribes. It was constructed with military fortresses, watchtowers, and gates, and served as both a defensive barrier and a symbol of Roman power. The remnants of Hadrian’s Wall still stand as a testament to Roman engineering and their strategic foresight.

Lasting Contributions and Decline

• Julian Calendar:
  The Julian Calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE, was a reform of the Roman calendar that aligned the year's length with the solar year. It replaced the previous lunar-based calendar and became the standard for the Roman world. The Julian Calendar included leap years to account for the extra 0.25 days in the solar year, creating a more accurate system. This calendar remained in use throughout Europe for over 1,600 years and was later refined into the Gregorian calendar, which is still in use today.

• Split of the Empire:
  In 285 CE, Emperor Diocletian split the Roman Empire into two parts—the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire. The decision was made to make governance of the vast empire more manageable, but it ultimately set the stage for the fall of the Western Empire in 476 CE. The Eastern Empire, with its capital in Constantinople, survived for nearly another thousand years, preserving Roman traditions and culture until its fall in 1453 CE.

• Fall of Rome:
  The fall of the Western Roman Empire is often attributed to a combination of internal decay and external invasions. Economic troubles, military overstretch, corruption, and social unrest weakened the empire's ability to govern effectively. Additionally, invasions by Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths and Vandals, as well as pressure from the Huns, led to the empire's collapse. In 476 CE, the last Roman emperor in the West, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed, marking the end of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.

From politics to innovation and culture, Rome’s impact on the modern world is profound. These facts shed light on the complexity of Roman society and the impressive accomplishments of a civilization that rose, thrived, and ultimately fell, leaving an indelible mark on history.